| Aspect | Details |
|---|---|
| Period | 1832 (Reform Act) to 1901 (death of Queen Victoria) Peak: 1850s-1890s |
| Social Context | • Industrial Revolution at height • British Empire expansion • Social reform movements • Science vs. Religion debates (Darwin 1859) • Rise of middle class • Urbanization, materialism |
| Literary Climate | • Realism in fiction dominant • "Condition of England" question • Art's social responsibility debated • Tension: Aestheticism vs. Social engagement |
| Reaction to Romanticism | Romanticism seen as excessive, subjective, irresponsible Victorian critics sought: Order, morality, social purpose |
| MCQ Alert | Victorian Age = Industrial, Empire, Science vs. Religion, Social responsibility of art |
"The Critic's Critic" - Most influential Victorian critic
| Work | Date | Focus |
|---|---|---|
| Preface to Poems (1853) | 1853 | Theory of poetry; rejection of personal/morbid subjects |
| On Translating Homer | 1861 | Four lectures on poetic translation and Homer's qualities |
| Essays in Criticism (First Series) | 1865 | The Function of Criticism, other critical essays |
| Culture and Anarchy | 1869 | Social/cultural criticism; "Sweetness and Light" |
| The Study of Poetry | 1880 | Introduction to Ward's English Poets; touchstone method |
| Essays in Criticism (Second Series) | 1888 | Further literary criticism |
| MCQ Key | Arnold's most important: The Function of Criticism (1865) + The Study of Poetry (1880) |
| Concept | Details |
|---|---|
| Definition of Criticism | "A disinterested endeavour to learn and propagate the best that is known and thought in the world" Key term: DISINTERESTED = impartial, objective, NOT self-interested NOT seeking practical ends Criticism seeks TRUTH, not utility |
| Purpose | • Create intellectual atmosphere for creative genius • Provide "current of true and fresh ideas" • Make best ideas available • Prepare ground for great creative epochs Criticism precedes and enables great creative periods |
| Qualities of Good Critic | • Disinterestedness (no bias, no agenda) • Flexibility (free play of mind) • Curiosity (openness to ideas) • "See the object as in itself it really is" (objectivity) |
| Against Practical Criticism | Rejects criticism tied to politics, religion, partisan causes "Practical" criticism = biased, narrow True criticism = free play of mind on all subjects |
| Famous Phrase | "Disinterested endeavour" + "see the object as in itself it really is" |
| Concept | Details |
|---|---|
| Poetry's Importance | "The future of poetry is immense... most of what now passes with us for religion and philosophy will be replaced by poetry" As religion and philosophy decline (science, doubt), poetry becomes more important Poetry offers what religion offered: consolation, interpretation of life |
| High Seriousness | "High seriousness" = essential quality of greatest poetry Treats important subjects with gravity and truth NOT frivolous, trivial, or merely entertaining Examples: Homer, Dante, Shakespeare, Milton Missing in: Chaucer (lacks high seriousness despite greatness) |
| Touchstone Method | "Touchstone" = test/standard Keep in mind lines from greatest poets as standards Compare other poetry to these touchstones Test by direct comparison with acknowledged masterpieces Touchstones: Lines from Homer, Dante, Shakespeare, Milton Method: Does new work give similar sense of poetic greatness? |
| Historic vs. Personal Estimate | Two FALLACIES to avoid: 1. Historic Estimate: Overvaluing work for historical importance (pioneering, influential) - May lack intrinsic poetic value 2. Personal Estimate: Overvaluing due to personal associations, memories - Subjective, not objective merit Real Estimate: Judging by intrinsic poetic excellence alone (use touchstones) |
| Key Terms | "High seriousness" + "Touchstone method" + "Historic/Personal Estimate" fallacies |
| Poet | Arnold's Judgment |
|---|---|
| Chaucer | Great poet BUT lacks "high seriousness" Too lighthearted, humorous Does NOT reach sublime heights of Dante, Shakespeare Controversial judgment - many disagreed |
| Dryden & Pope | "Classics of our prose" NOT classics of our poetry Excellent in craft, wit, but lack poetic intensity "Age of prose and reason" NOT great poetic age More like excellent verse than true poetry |
| True Poetry | Must have "poetic truth and poetic beauty" Must deal with life seriously, interpret it profoundly |
| Controversial | Arnold's view: Chaucer lacks high seriousness; Dryden/Pope = "prose" not poetry |
| Concept | Details |
|---|---|
| Culture | "The pursuit of our total perfection by means of getting to know... the best which has been thought and said in the world" Culture = Sweetness and Light • Sweetness: Beauty (Greek ideal) • Light: Intelligence, reason Harmonious development of all human faculties |
| Anarchy | Disorder from lack of culture Class conflicts, narrow-mindedness Doing as one likes without guidance |
| Three Classes | Barbarians: Aristocracy - style but no ideas Philistines: Middle class - practical but narrow, materialistic Populace: Working class - raw, uncultivated All need culture for wholeness |
| Hebraism vs. Hellenism | Hebraism: Moral conscience, duty, strictness (Judeo-Christian) Hellenism: Seeing things as they are, intelligence, beauty (Greek) Both necessary: Arnold argues Victorian England too Hebraic, needs more Hellenism |
| Famous Terms | "Sweetness and Light" + "Barbarians, Philistines, Populace" + "Hebraism vs. Hellenism" |
| Concept | Details |
|---|---|
| Four Qualities of Homer | Translator must capture: 1. Rapidity (swift movement) 2. Plainness of diction (simple, direct language) 3. Plainness of thought (clear ideas) 4. Nobility (elevated tone) English translators often fail one or more of these |
| Grand Style | Homer exemplifies "grand style" Simple + noble = truly grand NOT ornate or labored |
| Position | Details |
|---|---|
| Against Morbid Subjects | Rejected his own poem "Empedocles on Etna" Too subjective, morbid, depressing Modern subjects often lack "ennobli action" |
| Classical Subjects | Prefers classical subjects with clear action Objective treatment over subjective expression Reaction against Romantic subjectivity |
| Action Primary | Plot/action more important than expression Echoes Aristotle - plot as soul of tragedy |
| Achievement | Impact |
|---|---|
| Critic's Role | Elevated criticism as independent art form Critic = cultural authority |
| Objectivity Ideal | Championed disinterested, objective criticism |
| Cultural Criticism | Expanded criticism beyond literature to society |
| Canon Formation | Touchstone method influenced judgments for generations |
| Limitations | Sometimes too rigid, moralistic Undervalued wit, humor (Chaucer criticism) |
| Remember | ARNOLD = Disinterested + Touchstone Method + High Seriousness + Sweetness & Light + Hebraism/Hellenism |
| Work | Focus |
|---|---|
| Modern Painters (5 vols, 1843-60) | Defense of Turner; theory of art Truth to nature in art |
| The Stones of Venice (1851-53) | Architecture, art, society connection Gothic vs. Renaissance |
| Unto This Last (1860) | Social economy, moral critique of capitalism |
| Focus | Primarily art criticism, but literary implications Moral approach to aesthetics |
| Principle | Details |
|---|---|
| Truth to Nature | Art must be faithful to natural forms Turner praised for accurate observation Against academic conventions that distort nature |
| Moral Aesthetics | Great art = morally good Art expresses moral state of society Gothic architecture = noble, free labor Renaissance architecture = corrupt, slave labor Art cannot be separated from morality |
| Pathetic Fallacy | Term coined by Ruskin (Modern Painters III) Attributing human emotions to nature Example: "cruel sea," "angry storm" Ruskin's view: Sign of emotional excess Second-rate poets use it; great poets control emotion Controversial: Many Romantic poets used it effectively |
| Imagination vs. Fancy | Similar to Coleridge's distinction Imagination: Penetrating, truthful vision Fancy: Decorative, superficial Imagination sees deeper truths in nature |
| Famous Term | "Pathetic Fallacy" = Ruskin's term for attributing human feelings to nature |
| Topic | Ruskin's View |
|---|---|
| Art & Society | Art reflects moral health of society Industrial capitalism degrades art and labor Division of labor = dehumanizing Workers should be artists (medieval guild model) |
| Gothic Ideal | Medieval Gothic = healthy society Freedom, creativity in work Imperfection accepted (vs. machine perfection) |
| Against Mechanism | Industrial age produces soulless work Mass production destroys artistry Influenced Arts and Crafts Movement |
| Achievement | Impact |
|---|---|
| Moral Aesthetics | Art inseparable from morality and society |
| Social Criticism | Influenced William Morris, Arts and Crafts Movement |
| Art Criticism | Championed Turner, Pre-Raphaelites |
| Prose Style | Eloquent, passionate critical prose |
| Remember | RUSKIN = Pathetic Fallacy + Truth to Nature + Moral Aesthetics + Art & Society |
| Work | Date | Focus |
|---|---|---|
| Studies in the History of the Renaissance | 1873 | Essays on Renaissance art/literature; famous "Conclusion" |
| Appreciations | 1889 | Essays on English literature; "Style" essay important |
| Marius the Epicurean | 1885 | Philosophical novel |
| Most Important | The Renaissance (1873), especially "Conclusion" |
| Principle | Details |
|---|---|
| Art for Art's Sake | Art's purpose = create beauty, aesthetic experience NOT: Moral instruction, social reform, didacticism Art autonomous, self-justifying Contrast: Arnold (art has social/moral purpose), Ruskin (art = moral) |
| Aesthetic Experience | Value = intensity of experience, not moral lesson Life should be lived for beautiful moments "Not the fruit of experience, but experience itself, is the end" |
| Subjectivity | "To see the object as in itself it really is" (Arnold) Pater modifies: "To know one's impression as it really is" Shift from object to subjective impression Impressionistic criticism |
| Concept | Details |
|---|---|
| Flux & Impermanence | "All that is actual in it [life] being a single moment" Life = series of fleeting impressions Heraclitean flux - "all melts under our feet" |
| Burn with Hard Gem-Like Flame | "To burn always with this hard, gem-like flame, to maintain this ecstasy, is success in life" Most famous quote Seek intense experiences, aesthetic moments Quality of experience, not quantity or duration |
| Purpose of Life | "Not the fruit of experience, but experience itself, is the end" Process over product Intensity of sensation = highest value "To be present always at the focus where the greatest number of vital forces unite" |
| Art's Role | Art offers most intense experiences "For art comes to you proposing frankly to give nothing but the highest quality to your moments" Aesthetic experience = supreme value |
| Controversy | Conclusion removed from 2nd edition (1877) after criticism Accused of promoting hedonism, immorality Restored in later editions Influenced Aesthetes, Decadents (Oscar Wilde) |
| Famous Line | "Burn always with this hard, gem-like flame" - Pater's aesthetic ideal |
| Concept | Details |
|---|---|
| Style = Individual Vision | "Style is the man" Style = unique expression of individual sensibility NOT ornament added to thought Form and content inseparable |
| Le mot juste | The right word - Flaubertian ideal Careful selection, precision Every word matters, must be exactly right |
| Self-Restraint | Despite reputation, Pater values restraint Careful craftsmanship, revision Art requires ascetic labor |
| Achievement | Impact |
|---|---|
| Aestheticism | Leader of Aesthetic Movement in England Influenced Wilde, Yeats, Aesthetes |
| Impressionism | Subjective, impressionistic criticism Critic's response central |
| Art for Art's Sake | Championed artistic autonomy Against Victorian moralism |
| Prose Style | Carefully crafted, musical prose Style as art form |
| Reaction | Opposed Arnold's moralism, Ruskin's social emphasis Purer aesthetic approach |
| Remember | PATER = Gem-like Flame + Art for Art's Sake + Impressionism + Le mot juste |
| Aspect | Arnold | Ruskin | Pater |
|---|---|---|---|
| Purpose of Art | Moral/cultural improvement "Sweetness and light" | Moral expression Reflect society's health | Aesthetic experience Intensity of impression |
| Criticism's Role | Disinterested, objective "See object as it is" | Moral judgment Truth to nature | Subjective impression "Know impression as it is" |
| Standards | High seriousness Touchstone method | Moral truth Natural fidelity | Intensity of experience Individual response |
| Social View | Culture vs. Anarchy Education essential | Art inseparable from society Gothic ideal | Art autonomous Social issues secondary |
| Approach | Judicial, authoritative | Moral, prophetic | Impressionistic, subjective |
| Influence | Academic criticism Cultural authority | Social reform Arts & Crafts | Aestheticism Decadence, Modernism |
| Spectrum | Moralism ← ARNOLD — RUSKIN — PATER → Aestheticism |
| Work/Concept | Details |
|---|---|
| On Heroes and Hero-Worship (1841) | "The Hero as Poet" - Dante, Shakespeare Great men shape history Poet as prophet, seer |
| Style | Prophetic, impassioned tone Influenced by German Romanticism |
| Essays | Focus |
|---|---|
| "Silly Novels by Lady Novelists" (1856) | Critique of frivolous women's fiction Call for serious realism |
| Realism Theory | Sympathy through realistic portrayal Art as moral education through understanding |
| Aspect | Details |
|---|---|
| Founding | 1848 - Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood (PRB) • Founded by Dante Gabriel Rossetti, William Holman Hunt, John Everett Millais • Name: Return to art BEFORE Raphael (pre-1500) • Rejected academic conventions, sought medieval simplicity |
| Core Members | Visual Artists & Poet-Painters: • Dante Gabriel Rossetti (1828-1882): Poet & painter (leader) • William Holman Hunt (1827-1910): Painter • John Everett Millais (1829-1896): Painter Later associates: • William Morris (1834-1896): Poet, designer, theorist • Edward Burne-Jones (1833-1898): Painter • Algernon Charles Swinburne (1837-1909): Poet, critic |
| Period | First Phase: 1848-1853 (original PRB) Second Phase: 1850s-1870s (Morris, Swinburne, aesthetic development) |
| Champion | John Ruskin championed Pre-Raphaelites • Defended them against hostile critics • Pre-Raphaelitism (1851) - pamphlet defending movement • Saw them as embodying his "truth to nature" principle |
| Principle | Details |
|---|---|
| Truth to Nature | Faithful observation of natural forms • Reject academic idealization • Direct study from nature • Aligned with Ruskin's principle • Intense detail, bright colors |
| Medieval Revival | Return to medieval art & literature • Before Renaissance (hence "Pre-Raphaelite") • Medieval subjects: Arthurian legends, Dante, medieval romance • Gothic architecture influence (Ruskin's advocacy) • Simplicity, sincerity, spirituality of medieval art |
| Moral Seriousness | Art with spiritual/moral depth • Reject frivolous academic art • Religious, literary, moral subjects • BUT: Later phase more "art for art's sake" (Rossetti, Swinburne) |
| Integration of Arts | Synthesis of poetry, painting, design • Many Pre-Raphaelites both poets and painters • Rossetti: Equal achievement in both • Morris: Poetry, design, crafts unified • "Sister arts" united |
| Literary-Pictorial Connection | Literary subjects in painting • Shakespeare, Keats, Tennyson illustrated • Poetry inspired by visual art • Ekphrastic tradition (poems about paintings) |
| Aspect | Details |
|---|---|
| Dual Achievement | Major poet AND major painter • Poems (1870) - includes "The Blessed Damozel" • Ballads and Sonnets (1881) - includes "The House of Life" sonnet sequence • Paintings: Beata Beatrix, Proserpine, etc. |
| Aesthetic Theory | "Fundamental brainwork" in art • Art requires intellectual depth, not just technique • Symbolism, allegory important • Beauty AND meaning (not beauty alone) |
| Literary Sources | Dante, medieval romance, Arthurian legend • Translated Dante's Vita Nuova • Beatrice as recurring motif • Bridged medieval and modern sensibilities |
| Influence on Aestheticism | • Sensuous beauty, rich imagery • "Art for art's sake" tendency (later work) • Influenced Swinburne, Pater, Wilde • Transition: Medieval moralism → Aesthetic sensuousness |
| Criticism | "Hand and Soul" (1850) - critical tale • Allegorical story about artist's mission • Art as expression of inner vision • Artist serves beauty and truth |
| Work/Concept | Details |
|---|---|
| Literary Works | • The Defence of Guenevere (1858) - medieval poetry • The Earthly Paradise (1868-70) - narrative poems • News from Nowhere (1890) - utopian socialist romance • Translations: Icelandic sagas, Homer |
| Arts & Crafts Movement | Founded Arts & Crafts Movement (1880s) • Against industrial mass production • Handcrafted goods, traditional techniques • Morris & Co. (furniture, textiles, wallpaper, books) • Influenced by Ruskin's critique of industrialism |
| Aesthetic-Social Unity | "The Lesser Arts" (1877) lecture • Art should be part of everyday life • Beautiful environment = moral society • "Have nothing in your houses that you do not know to be useful or believe to be beautiful" • Democracy in art - beauty for all, not elite |
| Medieval Socialism | Combines medieval aesthetic + socialist politics • Medieval guilds = model for labor • Craftsman = artist (not alienated worker) • Marxist critique of capitalism + Pre-Raphaelite medievalism • Art inseparable from social conditions |
| Kelmscott Press | Founded 1891 - revival of fine printing • Beautiful books as total art works • Typography, illustration, binding unified • Medieval manuscript inspiration • Influence on book design lasting |
| Critical Position | "The Aims of Art" (1886) & other essays • Art must be accessible, not elite • Art = pleasure in labor (craftsman's joy) • Against "art for art's sake" as escapism • Art should transform society |
| Work/Concept | Details |
|---|---|
| Poetry | • Poems and Ballads (1866) - scandalous, sensuous • Atalanta in Calydon (1865) - Greek tragedy form • Aestheticism, eroticism, paganism • Controversial for immorality |
| Critical Works | William Blake: A Critical Essay (1868) • Pioneering study, rediscovered Blake • First major critical assessment of Blake Essays on literature, drama (Shakespeare, etc.) |
| Art for Art's Sake | Champion of aesthetic autonomy • Art serves beauty, NOT morality • Against Victorian didacticism • "Art for art's sake" advocate (with Pater) • Influenced Decadent movement |
| Relation to PRB | • Close to Rossetti (friend, collaborator) • Shared medievalism, aestheticism • But MORE extreme in sensuality, amoralism • Bridge between Pre-Raphaelites and Decadents |
| Publication | Details |
|---|---|
| The Germ (1850) | Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood's journal • Only 4 issues (Jan-Apr 1850) • Manifesto: "Thoughts towards Nature in Poetry, Literature and Art" • Published PRB poetry, criticism, art • Rossetti's early poems appeared here • Short-lived but influential |
| Principles in The Germ | • Truth to nature (observation over convention) • Sincerity in expression • Medieval subjects • Integration of visual and literary arts |
| Area | Influence |
|---|---|
| Aesthetic Movement | • Transitioned to Aestheticism (Rossetti, Swinburne) • Pater influenced by Pre-Raphaelite ideals • "Art for art's sake" roots in PRB • Bridge between Victorian moralism and Aestheticism |
| Arts & Crafts | • William Morris's movement • Ruskin's social criticism + PRB aesthetics • Handcraft revival, design reform • International influence (Europe, America) |
| Symbolism | • Rossetti's symbolist poetry • Influenced French Symbolists • Image, symbol, suggestion over statement |
| Visual-Literary Synthesis | • Poet-painters tradition • Ekphrastic poetry • Illustrated books • Total artwork (Gesamtkunstwerk) ideal |
| Revival Movements | • Medieval revival in literature • Gothic Revival in architecture • Arthurian literature revival (Tennyson, Morris, etc.) |
| Principle | Application |
|---|---|
| Truth to Nature | Observation over convention (Ruskin's influence) |
| Medieval Ideal | Simplicity, spirituality, integrated arts |
| Sister Arts | Poetry and painting united (Rossetti exemplar) |
| Moral-Aesthetic Tension | Early: Moral purpose; Later: Aesthetic autonomy |
| Craft & Design | Art in everyday life (Morris) |
| Symbolism | Deeper meaning through symbol and allegory |
| Key Transition | PRB = Medieval moralism (1848) → Aestheticism (1870s) → Arts & Crafts (1880s) |
| Theme | Victorian Position |
|---|---|
| Social Responsibility | Art should serve society, improve morals, address "condition of England" (Arnold, Ruskin) |
| Reaction to Romanticism | Seen as too subjective, irresponsible Victorian critics want objectivity, social purpose |
| Science vs. Religion | Crisis of faith (Darwin, geology) Poetry to replace religion? (Arnold) |
| Moralism | Art and morality linked (except Pater) Didactic tendency strong |
| Tension: Aesthetic vs. Social | Debate: Art for art's sake vs. art for society Pater vs. Arnold/Ruskin |
| Objectivity Ideal | Critic should be impartial, disinterested (Arnold) But also moral judgment needed |
| Canon Formation | Establishing "great tradition" of English literature Touchstone method (Arnold) |
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Most influential Victorian critic | Matthew Arnold ("Critic's Critic") |
| Arnold's definition of criticism | "Disinterested endeavour to learn and propagate the best that is known and thought" |
| "See object as in itself it really is" | Arnold - objectivity ideal for criticism |
| Arnold's touchstone method | Compare poetry to lines from greatest poets as standard/test |
| High seriousness | Arnold - essential quality of greatest poetry (treats important subjects gravely) |
| Historic vs. Personal Estimate | Arnold - two fallacies to avoid (overvaluing historically or personally) |
| Arnold on Chaucer | Great but lacks "high seriousness" |
| Arnold on Dryden/Pope | "Classics of our prose" NOT poetry |
| "Sweetness and Light" | Arnold - Culture = Beauty + Intelligence |
| Barbarians, Philistines, Populace | Arnold - three classes (Aristocracy, Middle, Working) |
| Hebraism vs. Hellenism | Arnold - Moral conscience vs. Intelligence/beauty (need balance) |
| Homer's four qualities | Arnold - Rapidity, Plain diction, Plain thought, Nobility |
| "Pathetic Fallacy" | Ruskin - attributing human emotions to nature (emotional excess) |
| Ruskin's main focus | Art criticism (Modern Painters, Stones of Venice) |
| Ruskin on art & society | Art inseparable from morality; reflects society's moral health |
| Pater's most famous work | The Renaissance (1873), especially "Conclusion" |
| "Burn with hard, gem-like flame" | Pater - aesthetic ideal, intense experience |
| "Experience itself is the end" | Pater - process over product, intensity valued |
| Art for Art's Sake | Pater - art's purpose is beauty/aesthetic experience, NOT moral instruction |
| Pater modifies Arnold | Arnold: "see object as it is" → Pater: "know impression as it is" (subjective) |
| Le mot juste | Pater - the right word (Flaubertian precision) |
| Victorian spectrum | Moralism (Arnold/Ruskin) → Aestheticism (Pater) |
| PRB founded | 1848 - Rossetti, Hunt, Millais |
| "Pre-Raphaelite" meaning | Before Raphael (pre-1500) - return to medieval simplicity |
| PRB champion | John Ruskin - defended them, saw "truth to nature" embodied |
| The Germ | PRB journal (1850, 4 issues) - "Thoughts towards Nature..." |
| Dante Gabriel Rossetti | Poet-painter - "Blessed Damozel", "House of Life"; translated Dante |
| William Morris | Poet, designer, socialist - Arts & Crafts Movement, Kelmscott Press |
| Morris's famous quote | "Have nothing...that you do not know to be useful or believe to be beautiful" |
| Swinburne's Blake study | William Blake: A Critical Essay (1868) - first major assessment, rediscovered Blake |
| PRB aesthetic principles | Truth to nature, medieval revival, integration of arts, symbolism |
| PRB to Aestheticism | Bridge: Medieval moralism (early) → Aesthetic sensuousness (late) |